Nothing definite is known about the doctrine of the early supporters of the imamate of Isma'il and his son Muhammad. Imami sources maintain that the Khattabiyya [q.v.], the followers of the extremist Shi'i Abu 'l-Khattab [q.v.], constituted the bulk of the early Isma'iliyya. Later Isma'ili doctrine, however, generally condemns Abu 'l-Khattab and does not appear to be substantially influenced by the heresies ascribed to him and his followers (see W. Ivanow, Ibn al-Qaddah, Bombay 1957). The Umm al-kitab preserved by the Isma'ilis of Bada¦hshan, in which Abu 'l-Khattab appears as a saintly disciple of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir and his sons are called the founders of Isma'ilism, is a syncretistic compilation written not earlier than the beginning of the 4th/10th century and perhaps as late as the early Alamut period. The ideas of the Shi'i ghulat [q.v.] represented in it are for the most part not specifically Isma'ili and evidently not derived from Isma'ili sources. The work thus must not be considered 'proto-Isma'ili".

The doctrine propagated by the pre-Fatimid Isma'ili revolutionary movement of the second half of the 3rd/9th century can be derived in its outlines from later Isma'ili works and reports of anti-Isma'ili authors. It embodied already the basic framework of the later Isma'ili religious system, though it was consequently modified in some important respects. Fundamental was the distanction between the zahir exterior or exoteric, and the batin [see batiniyya], inward or esoteric, aspects of religion. The zahir consists in the apparent, generally accepted meaning of the revealed scriptures and in the religious law laid down in them. It changes with each prophet. The batin consists in the truths (haqa'iq) concealed in the scriptures and laws, which are unchangeable and are made apparent from them by the ta'wil [q.v.], interpretation, which is often of a cabalistic nature relying on the mystical significance of letters and numbers. These truths form a gnostic system comprising a cosmology and a cyclical hierohistory. At the basis of the pre-Fatimid cosmology was a myth, only imperfectly reflected in the later sources, according to which the divine imperative kun, consisting of the letters kaf and nun, through duplication formed the two original principles kuni qadar. Kuni was the female and qadar the male principle. The seven letters of kuni qadar were known as the seven higher letters (al-huruf al-'ulwiyya), which are the archetypes of the seven messenger prophets and their revealed messages. From the two first principles proceeded three spiritual powers, djadd, fath, and ¦hayal, identified with the three archangels Jibra'il, Mika'il, and Israfil, which mediate between the spiritual world and man in the physical world (on this triad see H. Corbin, Le livre reunissant les deux sagesses, Tehran-Paris 1953, Etude preliminaire, 91-112). The cyclical history progresses through seven eras, each inaugurated by an enunciator (natiq) prophet bringing aqrevealed message. Each of the first six natiqs, Adam, Nuh, Ibrahim, Musa, 'Isa, and Muhammad, was followed by a fundament (asas) or silent one (samit), who revealed the batin of the message, and by seven imams. The seventh imam in each era rises in rank and becomes the natiq of the following era, abrogating the law of the previous natiq and bringing a new one. In the era of Muhammad, 'Ali was the asas and Muhammad b. Isma'il the seventh imam. Muhammad b. Isma'il on his reappearance in the near future will become the seventh natiq, the qa'im or Mahdi [q.v.], and will abrogate the law of Islam. His message will, however, consist in the full revelation of the batin truths without any zahir law. He will rule the world and then end the physical world, sitting in judgment over humanity. During his absence he is represented by twelve hudjdjas residing in the twelve regions (djaza'ir) of the earth. The cyclical history was sometimes coupled with astrological speculations, and astrological predictions were made specifically concerning the date of the coming of the qa'im.

Before the coming of the qa'im the batin must be kept secret and can be revealed to the neophyte only on swearing an oath of initiation with a vow of secrecy and on payment of a due. The initiation, known as balagh, was no doubt gradual, but there is no evidence of a strictly fixed sequence of grades generally followed as described by anti-Isma'ili sources. Beneath the imam and the hudjdjas a hierarchy of da'is was in charge of the initiation and instruction (da'wa [q.v.]). Little is known about the actual organization of the da'wa in the pre-Fatimid and Fatimid age. The widely differing enumerations of the grades (hudud) of the hierarchy given in Isma'ili religious texts serve mostly ideal functions and cannot be taken as corresponding closely to the actual organization (see W. Ivanow, The organization of the Fatimid propaganda, in JBBRAS, xv (1939), 1-35).

From about the beginning of the 4th/10th century onwards the early cosmology was superseded and partially replaced by a cosmology of Neoplatonic origin, apparently first propounded by the da'i al-Nasafi [q.v.]. In this cosmology God is described as absolutely beyond comprehension, beyond any attribute or name, beyond being and non-being. Through his divine Order or Volition (Amr) he originated (abda') the Intellect ('Aql). The 'Aql is the First Originated Being (al-Mubda' al-Awwal), since the Amr is united with it in existence From the Intellect the Soul (Nafs) proceeds through emanation. From the Soul proceed the seven spheres with their stars and move with its movement. Through the revolution of the spheres the single elements (al-mufradat) or natures, humidity, dryness, cold, and warmth, are mingled to form the composites (al-murakkabat), earth, water, air, and ether. As the composites mingle, the plants with the vegetative (namiya) soul develop From them the animals with the sensitive (hissiyya) soul develop, and from the latter, man with the rational (natiqa) soul. Al-Nasafi's cosmology was generally adopted in its essentials, though refined and elaborated by the later authors. Some minor points aroused controversy among them. The principles of the spiritual world in this cosmology were identified with terms of the religious sphere. Thus the Intellect in religious terminology was equated with the Pen (qalam) and the Throne ('Arsh), and the Soul was identified with the Tablet (Lawh) and the Footstool (Kursi) etc. Much stressed were the analogies between the spiritual, astral, and physical worlds and between man as theqmicrocosm and the physical world as the macrocosm. The official Fatimid da'wa apparently did not accept this cosmology until the time of the Caliph al-Mu'izz.

A somewhat different cosmological system was propounded by the da'i Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani [q.v.] (d. about 411/1021). Instead of the duality of the Intellect and the Soul his system comprises ten intellects in the spiritual world. The Soul is replaced by the Second Intellect or First Emanation (al-Munba'ith al-Awwal), proceeding from the higher relation (al-nisba al-ashraf) of the First Intellect. The Third Intellect or Second Emanation and First Potential Being, proceeding from the lower relation (al-nisba al-adwan) of the First Intellect, is equated with matter and form (al-hayula wa 'l-sura). From the First and Second Intellects proceed seven further intellects. The tenth one is the Active Intellect (al-'Aql al-Fa''al) or demiurge governing the physical world. The structure of the astral and the physical worlds and of the religious hierarchy were similarly modified by al-Kirmani in close analogy to the spiritual world. The system of al-Kirmani was not adopted by the Fatimid da'wa. Only among the Tayyibis in the Yemen did it replace the earlier traditional system.

Fatimid doctrine, because of the Fatimid claim to the imamate, was forced to modify the early doctrine concerning the role of Muhammad b. Isma'il as the final imam and Mahdi and the restriction of the number of imams to seven. 'Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi at first radically broke with this earlier doctrine by asserting that the imam after Ja'far al-Sadiq had been his son 'Abd Allah rather than Isma'il and that the imamate continued to be handed down among his descendants without restriction in number. Soon, however, attempts were made to accomodate the Fatimid claim to the imamate with the earlier theory. Muhammad b. Isma'il was again recognized as imam and as ancestor of the Fatimids. His return as the qa'im was sometimes interpreted spiritually, as being realized in the rise of the Fatimids, who would gradually fulfil the predictions concerning the qa'im. A second heptad of imams, often called the deputies (¦hulafa') of the qa'im, was admitted in the era of Muhammad as a special privilege of the latter. The eschatological expectations in respect to the qa'im were to be fulfilled after the expiration of the second heptade of imams. This theory also had to be abandoned as the Fatimid caliphate continued, though even then the eschatological events generally were expected in the near future (see W. Madelung, Das Imamat in der frühen ismailitischen Lehre, in Isl., xxxvii (1961), 43-135).

Fatimid doctrine, in contrast to the pre-Fatimid attitude which tended to depreciate the zahir, invariably insisted on the equal importance of the zahir and the batin and made every effort to suppress antinomian trends, which, however, often came to the surface among more radical Isma'ili groups. The Isma'ili fiqh was elaborated chiefly by the qadi al-Nu'man [q.v.] (d. 363/974), whose work Da'a'im al-Islam became the most authoritative exposition of it. Isma'ili law agrees in general with Imami law, but does not permit the mul'a [q.v.] temporary marriage and nullifies bequests to a legal heir except with the consent of the other heirs (see A. A. A. Fyzee, Compendium of Fatimid Law, Simla 1969). In the ritual, Isma'ili fiqh also agrees generally with Imami doctrine (see R. Strothmann, Recht der Ismailiten, in Isl., xxxi (1954), 131-46). It gives, however, full authority to the imam for determining the beginningqof a new month rather than requiring the sight of the new moon. In practice the beginning of the month was fixed by astronomical calculation. Thus it fell often one or two days earlier than for the other Muslims. This often led to friction in particular in respect to the beginning and end of the fasting month of Ramadan.

Post-Fatimid times.

Tayyibi doctrine:

The Tayyibi community in the Yemen and India preserved a large part of the Fatimid religious literature and retained the interest in the gnostic cosmology and cyclical history of the Fatimid age. Tayyibi doctrine, however, from the beginning adopted the cosmological system of al-Kirmani in place of the traditional Fatimid system, and modified it by introducing a mythical 'drama in heaven', first described by the second da'i mutlak Ibrahim al-Hamidi [q.v.], which profoundly shaped the Tayyibi gnosis. According to this myth, the two emanations from the First Intellect, the Second and Third Intellects, were rivals for the second rank after the First Intellect. As the Second Intellect reached this position by his superior efforts, the Third Intellect refused to recognize his superiority in rank. In punishment for this failure he fell from the third rank behind the following seven intellects and, after repenting, became stabilized as the Tenth Intellect and demiurge (mudabbir). The physical world was produced out of the spiritual forms (suwar) which together with the Tenth Intellect refused to recognize the superiority of the Second Intellect and out of the darkness generated by this sin. The Tenth Intellect, also called the Spiritual Adam (Adam al-Ruhani), tries to regain his original rank by calling the fallen spiritual forms to repentance. The first representative of his da'wa on earth was the First and Universal Adam (Adam al-Awwal al-Kulli), owner of the body of the ibda' world (al-djuththa al-ibda'iyya), who opened the first cycle of manifestation (dawr al-kashf) and is distinguished from the Partial Adam (Adam al-Juz'i), who opened the present age of concealment (dawr al-satr). After his passing he rose to the horizon of the Tenth (Intellect) and took his place, while the Tenth rose in rank. Similarly the qa'im of each cycle after his passing rises and takes the place of the Tenth, who thus gradually rises until he will join the Second Intellect. Countless cycles of manifestation and concealment succeed each other until the Great Resurrection (qiyamat al-qiyamat) which consummates the megacycle (al-kawr al-a'zam), sometimes specified to last 360,000 times 360,000 years.

The soul of each believer on his initiation is joined by a point of light, which grows as he advances in knowledge. On his passing it rises to join the soul of the holder of the rank (hadd) above him in the hierarchy. It continues to rise from hadd to hadd until it is gathered together with the souls of all other believers in the light temple (haykal nurani) in the shape of a human being which constitutes the form of the qa'im (sura qa'imiyya) of his cycle, which then rises to the horizon of the Tenth. The souls of the unbelievers remain with their bodies, which are dissolved into an organic matter which is consequently transformed into various harmful creatures and substances in descending order. Depending on the gravity of their sins they may eventually rise again through the ascending forms of life and as human beings may accept the da'wa or end up in Sidjdjin in torment lasting as long as the megacycle.

Continuing the Fatimid tradition Tayyibi doctrineqmaintained the equal validity of the zahir and the batin and repudiated antinomian trends. qadi al-Nu'man's Da'a'im al-Islam remained the authoritative work of fiqh.

Nizari doctrine:

Owing to the upheavals in the political history of the Nizari communities, their wide dispersal, the language barriers between them, and the repeated loss of large parts of their religious literature, Nizari doctrine is marked by major shifts in time and nearly completely independent local traditions.

Doctrine of Alamut:

The vigorous activism of the movement led by Hasan-i Sabbah even before its break with the Fatimid caliphate was associated with a new preaching (da'wa djadida), most eloquently formulated, though perhaps not originated, by Hasan-i Sabbah himself. The new preaching entailed an apologetic reformulation of the old Shi'i doctrine of ta'lim, i.e., the authoritative teaching in religion, which could be carried out only by a divinely chosen imam in every age after the Prophet. Hasan-i Sabbah reaffirmed the need for such a teacher as a dictate of reason and went on to prove that only the Isma'ili imam fulfilled this need. In his argumentation he seems to have stressed the autonomous authority of each imam, independent of his predecessors, thus unwittingly authorizing the later shifts of doctrine. The doctrine of ta'lim had a strong impact in the Sunni world, as is reflected by its elaborate refutation by al-Ghazali [q.v.] and others.

A religious revolution took place under the fourth lord of Alamut, Hasan 'ala dhikrihi al-salam (557/1162-561/1166), who on 17 Ramadan 559/8 Aug. 1164 solemnly proclaimed the resurrection (qiyama) in the name of the imam, whose hudjdja or deputy (¦halifa) he declared himself to be. In consonance with the Isma'ili expectations concerning the qiyama he announced the abrogation of the shari'a, which so far had been strictly enforced by the lords of Alamut. The resurrection was interpreted spiritually as the manifestation of the unveiled Truth in the imam which actualized Paradise for the believers who could grasp it, while it condemned the non-Isma'ili opponents to spiritual non-being, i.e., Hell. After the murder of Hasan by a brother-in-law opposed to the abolition of the shari'a, the doctrine of the qiyama was further elaborated by his son and successor Muhammad (561/1166-607/1210). Hasan before his death seems to have hinted that he himself was the imam at least spiritually. Muhammad now maintained that his father had been the imam also by physical descent, apparently alleging that he was the son of a descendant of Imam Nizar who had secretly found refuge in Alamut. The line of imams thus continued through Hasan and Muhammad in the lords of Alamut. Muhammad put the imam, and specifically the present imam, at the centre of the doctrine of the qiyama. The resurrection consisted in viewing God in the spiritual reality of the imam. This doctrine entailed the exaltation of the imam over the prophet, which became characteristic of Nizari thought. At the same time a new figure, the imam-qa'im, was introduced in the cyclical history. The imam-qa'im in the various eras was identified as Melchizedek (Malik al-Salam), Dhu 'l-qarnayn, Khidr, Ma'add, and, in the era of Muhammad, as 'Ali. He was recognized by the prophets in each era as the locus of the divinity. In the qiyama the imam-qa'im, i.e., the present imam, who is identical with 'Ali, appears openly in his spiritual reality to the believer, who in his spiritual relationship to the imam is identical with Salman [q.v.]. The ranks ofqthe teaching hierarchy intervening between the imam and the believer have, also in agreement with the Isma'ili expectations concerning the qiyama, faded away. There are only three categories of men left: the opponents (ahl al-tadadd) of the imam who adhere to the shari'a, the ordinary followers of the imam or people of gradation (ahl al-tarattub), who have gone beyond the shari'a to the batin and have found partial truth, and the people of union (ahl al-wahda), who see the imam in his true nature discarding all appearances and have reached the realm of full truth. The qiyama doctrine was clearly influenced by Sufi ideas and terminology and prepared the way for the close relationship between later Nizari Isma'ilism and Sufism.

The qiyama doctrine was repudiated by Muhammad's son and successor Jalal al-Din Hasan (607/1210-618/1221), who proclaimed his adherence to Sunni Islam, publicly cursed his predecessors, and imposed the Sunni shari'a on his followers, inviting Sunni scholars to instruct him. As he continued to be considered by them as the imam, his orders were accepted without opposition. There is evidence that at least before his death he acted towards his followers again in the fashion of an Isma'ili imam. Under his son 'Ala' al-Din Muhammad (618/1221-653/1255) the enforcement of the shari'a was relaxed, though it was not officially abolished. The adjusted doctrine which now was developed to explain the new religious situation is expounded in the contemporary Isma'ili works of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi [q.v.]. The reimposition of the shari'a by Jalal al-Din Hasan was interpreted as a return to precautionary dissimulation (taqiyya) and a new period of concealment (satr), when the truth is hidden in the batin, in contrast to the preceding period of qiyama, when the unveiled truth was apparent and available to all. The qiyama proclaimed by Hasan 'ala dhikrihi 'l-salam, coming at about the middle of the millenium of the era of the Prophet Muhammad, was merely anticipatory of the final qiyama at the end of it. In the era of Muhammad periods of satr and qiyama may alternate according to the decision of each imam, since every imam is a potential imam-qa'im. The state of spiritual union (wahda) in the time of satr is restricted to the hudjdja of the imam, who partakes of the divine Support (ta'yid) and possesses the truth of the imam, with whom he is consubstantial. The ahl al-tarattub are divided into the strong (aqwiya') and the weak (du'afa') according to their closeness to the truth.

Conditions in the post-Alamut period favoured the adoption of Sufi ways of life by the imams and their followers also externally. Isma'ili ideas were often camouflaged in Sufi forms of expression, especially in poetry. Doctrinal works were written again from the 9th/16th century on, at a time when the victory of Shi'ism in Persia permitted the Nizaris and their imams to act somewhat more openly. The doctrine of the late Alamut period as expressed by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi was essentially retained. Works of the Fatimid age, which still influenced al-Tusi, were no longer available. Interest in the Isma'ili cosmology and cyclical history waned. The role of the hudjdja as the revealer of the spiritual truth and only access to the essence of the imam, already stressed by al-Tusi, was further elaborated.

A special literary tradition within Nazari Isma'ilism in Persian was retained by the community of Bada¦hshan. Although many works of the Alamut and post-Alamut period found their way there, the community remained particularly attached to the works, genuine and spurious, of Nasir-i Khusraw.qFatimid doctrine in the adaptation of Nasir, including the Fatimid cosmology, thus maintained their influence. The community of Bada¦hshan also transmitted and revered the Umm al-kitab representing largely non-Isma'ili thought.

Syrian Nizari literature, written in Arabic, developed independently of the Persian literature, even during the Alamut period. Persian works were not translated into Arabic or vice-versa. The Syrian community preserved a substantial selection of Fatimid religious literature, partially different from those preserved by the Tayyibis. Even though the qiyama was proclaimed, apparently with some delay, in Syria, the qiyama doctrine had practically no impact there. The scholarly doctrine continued mostly in the Fatimid tradition. Syrian doctrinal works, while concentrating on the traditional cosmology and cyclical history, virtually ignore the current imam, the central figure in the Persian Alamut and post-Alamut doctrine. In religious literature of a popular type Rashid al-Din Sinan is extolled as a saintly hero and his cosmic rank is described in terms appropriate to the imam. Much of the Syrian Isma'ili literature was destroyed later during the feuds with neighbouring communities.

Among the Khodjas Isma'ili literature, both Persian and Arabic, has been virtually unknown. Only a single Persian work, the Pandiyat-i Javanmardi containing a collection of religious and moral admonitions of the Nizari Imam al-Mustansir (end of the 9th/15th century), was accepted as a sacred book, perhaps a century after his death. The traditional religious literature of the Khodjas and the Imam Shahis is known as Satpanth [q.v.] literature, Sat Panth, i.e., True Path, designating the religion preached in it. It consists of numerous writings in verse form, called ggnas, written in, or translated into, several Indian languages. Most of them are ascribed to the medieval pirs, but cannot be dated exactly and probably have undergone changes in the transmission. They contain hymns, moral and religious instruction, legendary histories of the pirs, and descriptions of their miracles, but no formulated creed or theology. Their religious content is a mixture of Islamic and Hindu, especially popular Tantric, elements. While idol worship is condemned, Hindu mythology is accepted. 'Ali is described as the Tenth Avatar or incarnation of the deity, and the imams are identical with him. The qur'an is considered the last of the Vedas, which are viewed as holy scriptures whose true interpretation is known to the pirs. The religious role of the pir or guru is extolled. Acceptance of the true religion will free the believer from further rebirths and open Paradise for him, which is described in Islamic terms, while those failing to recognize the imams must pass through another cycle of rebirths. The traditional Isma'ili cosmology, cyclical history, and hierarchy are unknown (see W. Ivanow, Satpanth, in Collectanea I (The Ismaili Society), Leiden 1948, 1-54).

(W. Madelung)